Disinformation is proliferating on the internet, and platforms are responding by attaching warnings to content. There is little evidence, however, that these warnings help users identify or avoid disinformation. In this work, we adapt methods and results from the information security warning literature in order to design and evaluate effective disinformation warnings. In an initial laboratory study, we used a simulated search task to examine contextual and interstitial disinformation warning designs. We found that users routinely ignore contextual warnings, but users notice interstitial warnings---and respond by seeking information from alternative sources. We then conducted a follow-on crowdworker study with eight interstitial warning designs. We confirmed a significant impact on user information-seeking behavior, and we found that a warning's design could effectively inform users or convey a risk of harm. We also found, however, that neither user comprehension nor fear of harm moderated behavioral effects. Our work provides evidence that disinformation warnings can---when designed well---help users identify and avoid disinformation. We show a path forward for designing effective warnings, and we contribute repeatable methods for evaluating behavioral effects. We also surface a possible dilemma: disinformation warnings might be able to inform users and guide behavior, but the behavioral effects might result from user experience friction, not informed decision making.
翻译:互联网上的信息正在扩散,平台正在通过对内容附加警告作出反应。然而,几乎没有证据表明,这些警告有助于用户识别或避免虚假信息。在这项工作中,我们调整了信息安全预警文献的方法和结果,以便设计和评价有效的虚假信息警告。在最初的实验室研究中,我们使用模拟搜索任务来检查背景和相互之间的虚假信息警告设计。我们发现用户经常忽略背景警告,但用户通过从其他来源寻求信息而注意到了相互警告和反应。我们随后用8个内部警告设计了一次后续的人群工作者研究。我们确认了对用户寻求信息行为的重大冲击,我们发现预警的设计可以有效地告知用户或传递伤害风险。但我们也发现,用户既不能理解,也不能害怕伤害调节的行为效应。我们的工作提供了证据,说明在设计设计良好的帮助用户用户识别和避免错误信息时,不知情警告可以发现和避免错误信息。我们展示了设计有效警告的前进道路,我们为评估行为效果提供了可重复的方法。我们还确认了对用户寻求信息的行为效果有重要影响的方法。我们还发现,我们暴露了一种可能使用户陷入困境:不知情的警告可能会导致不知情的行为风险。